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Wednesday, 12 December 2018

My Profession.Life: Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act 1981

My Profession.Life: Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act 1981: Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act 1981 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A.      AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The main object of t...

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Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act 1981



Air Prevention & Control of Pollution Act 1981




RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A.     AIMS AND OBJECTIVES


The main object of the Act, as enshrined in its preamble to preserve the quality of air and to control air pollution.
The aims and object of the Act to prevent air pollution and also to prevent abatement of air pollution and to improve the quality of air.
The presence in air beyond certain limits of various pollutants discharged through industrial emissions and from certain human activities connected with traffic, heating use of domestic fuel, refuse incineration, etc. has detrimental effect on the health of the people as also on animal life, vegetation and property.
The paramount object of the Act to prevent pollution and to control air quality for the purpose to safe the health of the human, animal life, vegetation, and property.

B.     STATEMENT OF  PROBLEM


The main problem of the Act is that a number of lacuna and loopholes have been detected in its implementation after passing of the Act in 1981  .           .
Clauses (a), (b), (j) and (k) of Section 2 define “air pollutant”, “air pollution”,“emission” and “industrial plant” respectively.These definitions are confusing and intermingling.  Under the Air Act action is to be taken against “occupier” and definition of occupier in Clause (m) excludes the owner or the assignee of the owner of industrial plant or such premises. As a result it has been noticed that the Boards are unable to take any action against the owner of industrial plant or such premises. As a result it has been noticed that the Boards are unable to take any action against the owner as the “occupier” may change frequently specially when the occupier is a lessee. Further the word “Factory” used in Clause (m) has nowhere been defined in the air Act. The air Act is only concerned with industrial plants. According to clause (n) of Section 2 the term “prescribed” means prescribed by rules under this Act by the Central Government or as the case may be, the State Government. Under the Act the Central Board is to act as State Board in the case of Union Territory.
When section 5 (2) (b) is read with Section 7 (2) it is not clear whether the membership is by name or by office. If it is by name then under Section 7 (2) the term of office of a member under clauses (b) and (c) of sub-section (2) of Section 5 shall come to an end as soon as the member ceases to hold office under the state Government and his successor cannot be considered to be a member of Board until he is nominated by the State Government.  On the other hand if the membership is ex-officio there under Clause (5) of Section 7 a particular office cannot continue to be a member for more than 9 years.  As sub-section (6) of Section 7 lays down that a member of the Board shall not be eligible for re-nomination for more than two terms which means that a chair (ex-officio member) can be a member of the Board for a maximum period of 9 years. There are only a few chairs (ex-officio members) representing the Government and the corporation who can contribute substantially to the efficient performance of the Board. Most of them are serving the Board for the third term (second-renomination). This means that after the expiry of this term they can never the nominated to the Board. To obviate the problem arising from a total bar on third or subsequent re-nomination sub-section (6) of Section 7 should be amended to allow re-nomination after a lapse of three or more years.

C.     RESEARCH QUESTION


 The research has been conducted with the following questions:-
  1. What is the meaning of air pollutant and air pollution?
  2. What are the power and function of the central pollution control board?
  3. What are the power and function of the state pollution control board?
  4. What are the penalties and procedure for non-compliance of the provision    of the Act?

D.    RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS


The research work is an attempt to distill lessons and by critically examine the environmental issues. It is an attempt to know the various prevention to reduce the pollution level and various boards and their function in our county that how they control pollution level.

E. METHODS OF RESEARCH


" Methodology” implies more than simply the methods the researcher used to collect data. It is often necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods. The methodology opted for the study on the topic may be Doctrinal.

Doctrinal research in law field indicates arranging, ordering and analysis of the legal structure, legal frame work and case laws by extensive surveying of legal literature but without any field work.

  




CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION


(1) INTRODUCTORY –


Air is the natural gift to all living organisms.  It is most essential ingredient of life.  Entire living creatures on the earth cannot live without air.  Air is mixture of gases that forms earth’s atmosphere.  The natural on fresh air contains 20.95% oxygen, 78% of nitrogen, 0.03% of carbon dioxide, 0.93% argon and negligible quantities of ozone, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide.  If this ratio is disturbed owing to presence of any foreign substance in it, the air cannot be said to be fresh air.  Rather, it would be polluted or contaminated air, unfit for use.  To preserve the duality of air and control of air pollution, the Indian Parliament enacted the air (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981.

Tuesday, 11 December 2018

My Profession.Life: TRANSFERABILITY OF PROPERTY IS GENERAL RULE ITS NO...

My Profession.Life: TRANSFERABILITY OF PROPERTY IS GENERAL RULE ITS NO...: TRANSFERABILITY OF PROPERTY IS GENERAL RULE ITS NON TRANSFERABILITY IS AN EXCEPTION”.-ANALYSE. SYNOPSIS STATEMENT OF PROBLEM ...

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TRANSFERABILITY OF PROPERTY IS GENERAL RULE ITS NON TRANSFERABILITY IS AN EXCEPTION”.-ANALYSE.


TRANSFERABILITY OF PROPERTY IS GENERAL RULE ITS NON TRANSFERABILITY IS AN EXCEPTION”.-ANALYSE.


SYNOPSIS


STATEMENT OF PROBLEM



Clause (a) of section 6 of the Transfer Of Property Act excludes mere chance of an heir apparent of succeeding to an estate from the category of transferable property. The technical expression for such a chance is ‘Spes Successionis’. During the lifetime of a person, the chance of his heir apparent succeeding to the estate or the chance of a relation obtaining a legacy under his will is a ‘Spes Successionis’(chance of succession). Such expectancy does not amount to an interest in property and cannot be made the subject matter of a transfer. The paper aims at analyzing the position of the same while looking at a case study to understand why this is an exception to the general rule and how it is different from other cases of a like nature.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
  1.  To analyze and understand in this project, and seeks to differentiate between the types of property that may be transferred from the non-transferable type
  2.  To know about the discretion of the courts regarding if any loopholes found later on while incorporation a company by a promoter.
  3.  To understand the nature of work and it is essential to understand the connection that exists between the transfers of property.
  4.   The focus of this paper would be on the provisions of the Act, with close reference to the relevant section of the Code, in trying to understand the nature of property in general, thereby trying to answer the specific question of whether or not all property is transferable.


RESEARCH QUESTIONS
  1.  What is property?
  2.  In how many category property can be classified?
  3.  What do we mean by transfer of property and what are the elements?
  4. Does Transfer of Property Act 1882 cover both movable & immovable property?
  5.  How many kind of transfer? When Transfer of Property Act 1882 not amounting to transfer of Property?
  6.  What is Spec Successions?


RESEARCH METHOD
Methodology” implies more than simply the methods the researcher used to collect data. It is often necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods. The methodology opted for the study on the topic may be Doctrinal. 

Doctrinal research in law field indicates arranging, ordering and analysis of the legal structure, legal frame work and case laws by extensive surveying of legal literature but without any field work.


SOURCES OF DATA
The Secondary sources:

·         Books

(1). the Transfer of Property Act, 1882, Bare Act.
(2). SRA Rosedar, B.Com BL, Lexis Nexis, Property Laws (Transfer of Property & Easements)
(3).Dr. Rao Surya Rega, Ph.D (Law), Lectures on Transfer of Property, Asia Law House, Reprint 2016.
(4). Dr. Sinha R.K., Formerly, Head & Dean, Faculty of Law University of Allahabad, The Transfer of Property Act, Central Law Agency, 18th Edition,2017.
(5). Shukla S.N., LL.M (Luck), The Transfer of Property Act [ACT NO. 4 OF 1882], Allahabad Law Agency, 29th Edition,2015

·         Website

·         Dictionary-

CONCISE LAW DICTIONARY (LEXIS NEXIS) FIFTH EDITION




CHAPTER 1:


INTRODUCTION


Selling is essentially a transfer of feelings – Zig Ziglar


Except as specified in various clauses of s.6 of the act, property of any kind may be transferred. Therefore, general rule is that property of any kind may be transferred as laid down in s.6 and the person pleading non-transferability must prove the existence of any usage or custom which restricts the right of transfer. Clause (a) of section 6 of the transfer of property act discusses the chance of an heir apparent to succeed to the property. A person having interest which is spes successionis i.e. mere expectancy to succeed to the property in future is not a right and is not capable of being transferred. Such a person cannot bring a suit on the basis of such chance of succession. Similarly, a gift of spes successionis is invalid and confers no title on the donee.
Where the transfer is not of the right of expectancy of an heir apparent but of the property itself, it cannot be said to be a transfer of a mere chance to succeed. Thus, when a person is not heard of for a long time and is believed to be dead, an agreement to transfer the property, entered into by his brother who is in enjoyment and possession of the property in dispute, is not a transfer of the right of expectancy, but of the property itself and is not hit by cl (a) of s.6.
It is important to note the meaning of the word property as applied in the act. Property has been given a rather wide spectrum covering both tangible material things, e.g., land and houses as well as rights which are not exercised over any material, e.g., a right to repayment of a debt. The word ‘transfer’ in the Act has also been used in a wide sense. It may mean either transfer of all the rights and interests in the property or transfer of one or more of subordinate rights in the property. Thus, the expression ‘transfer of property’ may, therefore, imply either transfer of things, transfer of one or more of the rights in a thing, or transfer of a debt
                     From the above discussion, it is clear that, the expression transfer of property as defined in section 5 is wide enough to cover any transaction which has the effect of conveying property from one living person to another. Since conveying of the property involves the creation of new title or interests in favor of the transferee. That is to say, if new title or interest has not been created in favor of the transferee, the property is not conveyed, hence no transfer of property.




 CHAPTER 2:


PROPERTY

2.1 What is property?

The term property is derived from the Latin term ‘propertia’ which means ‘a thing owned’. The term ‘property’ has different meanings. Any physical object or thing is property. Any object which is owned is property. Property denotes a proprietary right of a person but not a personal right.
The word ‘property’ is a term of a wide connotation and in the Act, it has been seen in any of the following senses:-

(1).Tangible material things, e.g., land and houses.

(2).Rights which are exercised over material things, e.g., right to enjoy and possess, right to sell or to make a gift of things.

(3).Rights which are not exercised over any material, e.g., a right to repayment of a debt.


2.2 Category of property classified


The property can be classified in to two categories.

(1).Immovable Property (excluding standing timber, growing crops, and grass)
(2).Movable Property

Movable Property


"Immovable property" includes land, buildings, hereditary allowances, rights to ways, lights, ferries, fisheries or any other benefit to arise out of the land, and things attached to the earth or permanently fastened to anything which is attached to the earth, but not standing timber, growing crops nor grass.  ”immovable property" shall include land, benefits to arise out of the land, and things attached to the earth, or permanently fastened to anything attached to the earth.

Movable Property


In civil law systems, personal property is often called movable property or movables – any property that can be moved from one location to another.

1.The movable property can easily be transported from one place to another, without changing its shape, capacity, quantity or quality.
2. Examples: vehicles, books, utensils, timber, etc.
3. Mango trees, if cut and sold for timber purpose, are deemed as movable property.
4. Contract for cutting the bamboos and collection of beedi leaves for orvesjear comes under movable property.
5. The movable property need not be registered under the Indian Registration Act, 1908. It is purely optional.
6. The movable property is liable to sales tax, and Central sales tax, subject to certain restrictions and conditions under the Andhra Pradesh General Sales Tax Act, 1957 (or the State concerned) and the Central Sales Tax Act, 1956.
7. Mere delivery with intention to transfer the movable property completes the transfer.
8. Movable property does not form an accretion to an ancestral impartibly estate. (Case-law: Thakur Hari Singh vs. Commissioner of Income-tax (AIR 1968 Raj. 5)

2.3 What do we mean by transfer of property & its elements?


The requirements to be met as per Section 5 are four in number.

Transfer must be by a living or juristic person.

A juristic person was defined in the case Shiromanigurudwara Prabhakar committee, Amritsar v. Sri SomnathDass. In this case the court said that a juristic person can be an individual, firm, corporate company, association, society, not including partnership firm. Any individual who can sue or be sued under law would satisfy this requirement.
The transfer must be through a conveyance.
Thirdly, the property itself must be transferred.
Fourthly, it must be made to a living or a juristic person.

2.4 Does Transfer of Property Act 1882 cover both movable & immovable property?


Chapter II (S.5-S.53A) of the Act lays down the general law n respect of property and can be interpreted to be applicable to both Movable as well as Immovable property subject to the express language of the section concerned. For instance S.6 talks about both movable as well as immovable properties. Similarly S.25 (Conditional Transfer) also applies to both movable and immovable properties. Look at it this way. Since S.5 while defining the expression “Transfer of Property” uses the word “property” (without qualifying with any adjectives like “movable” or “Immovable” It makes us path clear to safely assume that the entire act applies to both movable as well as movable properties.

2.5 Kind of transfer? When Transfer of Property Act 1882 not amounting to transfer of Property?


Here we will discuss the different types of transfers mentioned in the TP Act. In addition, we will also look into License as provided under Sec. 52 of Indian Easement Act, 1882, which is many times confused with lease and erroneously used.

1.      SALE


According to section 54 of the Transfer of Property Act, Sale is a transfer of ownership in exchange for a price paid or promised or part-paid and part-promised.  In a sale, there is an absolute transfer of all rights in the property sold.

MODE OF TRANSFER BY SALE

There are only two modes of transfer by sale, that is: (i) by the registered instrument; and (ii) delivery of possession.  A transfer by sale of tangible immovable property of the value of one hundred rupees and upwards can be made only by a registered instrument.

2.      MORTGAGE


Section 58 of Transfer of Property Act defines a mortgage as the transfer of an interest in a specific immovable property for the purpose of securing the payment of money advanced or to be advanced by way of loan, an existing or future debt or the performance of an engagement which may give rise to a pecuniary liability. Thus, a mortgage is a transfer of an interest in specific immovable property as security for the repayment of a debt.
The transferor is called mortgagor, the transferee a mortgagee; the principal money and interest of which payment is secured for the time being are called the mortgage-money, and the instrument (if any) by which the transfer is effected is called a mortgage-deed.

3.      EXCHANGE


Section 118 of the Transfer of Property Act provides that when two persons mutually transfer the ownership of one thing for the ownership of another, neither thing nor both things being money only, the transaction is called an Exchange.  The definition of the word exchange is not limited to immovable property.  Exchange is not only exchange of lands but also barter of goods.  In Harish Chandra v. Chandra Shekhar (AIR 1977 All 44).

4.      GIFT


Section 122 of the Transfer of Property Act defines Gift as the transfer of certain existing movable or immovable property made voluntarily and without consideration by one person, called the donor, to another, called the donee, and accepted by or on behalf of the donee.  Such acceptance must be made during the lifetime of the donor and while he is still capable of giving.  If the donee dies before acceptance, the gift is voidA gift of immovable property to a minor is complete when it is accepted by a person on behalf of the minor and appends his thumb impression on the gift-deed in token of acceptance.


5.      LEASE


Section 105 of the Transfer of Property Act lays down that a lease of immovable property is a transfer of a right to enjoy such property, made for a certain time, express or implied, or in perpetuity, in consideration of a price paid or promised, or of money, a share of crops, service or any other thing of value, to be rendered periodically or on specified occasions to the transferor by the transferee, who accepts the transfer on such terms.  The transferor is called the lessor, the transferee, is called the lessee, the price is called the premium, and the money, share, service or other thing to be so rendered is called the rent.

Transfer of Property Act, 1882 not amounting to Transfer of Property



As the transfer of property’ means ‘conveying of property’, i.e., creation of new title or interest in the favor of the transferee, if new title or interest has not created in favor of transferee , the property cannot be said to be conveyed, thus no transfer of property.
  1. Partition- As nothing new is obtained by a co-sharer on partition, it is not a transfer of property. His specific share, which vested in him earlier, is simply separated.
  2. Relinquishment:—it is an extinction of a right and therefore, there is nothing left to transfer. Thus a relinquishment (The act of giving up and abandoning a struggle or task) by a reversionary of his reversionary interest does not amount to transfer. But if the person in whose favor the ‘release’ is executed, gets certain rights by virtue of such release, the transaction may amount to a transfer

  1. Surrender.—it is not a transfer as it is the manager of a lesser estate with a greater one.
  2. Easement.—the creation of an easement (the privilege of using something that is not your own) does not amount to a transfer.
  3. Will.—Because it operates from the death of the person making it, while the definition contemplates a transfer by a living person, does not fall within the definition of transfer.
  4. Compromise.—it may or may not amount to transfer. It depends on the facts and circumstances of each case. In Hussiaa Banu v. Shivanarayan, (AIR 1968 MP 307)
  5. Family arrangement/settlement. — A family settlement entered into by the parties for the purpose of putting an end to the disputes among family members does not amount to transfer, not being an alienation it does not amount to the creation of an interest.

2.6 Spec Successionis

An expectation of succeeding to property. It is not a title, but adventurous lenders may see it as a form of comfort. Spes successionis within the meaning of Section 6 of the Act: The things referred to in this Sub-section as non-transferable are the chance of an heir succeeding to an estate, the chance of a relation obtaining a legacy (a gift by will) on the death of a kinsman, and any other mere possibility of a like nature.




 CHAPTER 3:


PROPERTY of ‘ANY KIND’ MAY BE TRANSFERRED



3.1 Property of ‘any kind’ may be transferred

The Transfer of Property Act, 1882 (hereinafter, the Act) is a civil legislation of immense importance owing to the vast number of property related transactions taking place throughout the country. A uniform legislation was the need of the hour considering this factor, and this act was drafted to serve the selfsame purpose. It is important to note the meaning of the word property as applied in the act. Property has been given a rather wide spectrum covering both tangible material things, e.g., land and houses as well as rights which are not exercised over any material, e.g., a right to repayment of a debt. The word ‘transfer’ in the Act has also been used in a wide sense. It may mean either transfer of all the rights and interests in the property or transfer of one or more of subordinate rights in the property. Thus, the expression ‘transfer of property’ may, therefore, imply either transfer of things, transfer of one or more of the rights in a thing, or transfer of a debt.



3.2 Transferable Property & attachment – a Critical Overview


Section 6 of the Act explains the nature of the property liable to be transferred under the said provision. 
In general "property of any kind may be transferred'. There is however, a series of exceptions to this, as enumerated under sub-sections (a) to (i), explained hereafter. It is interesting to note the distinct similarity between these sections and those made by Section 60 of the Civil Procedure Code as to the property which cannot be attached in the execution of a decree. Although there is this similarity yet there is a difference between the exceptions made in this section and exceptions made in Section 60. Certain things such as tools of artisans and necessary cooking vessels can be transferred, yet they, under Section 60 of the Code cannot be attached. Apart from the exceptions made by the present section there are certain restrictions imposed by other laws on the power of transfer. For e.g., restrictions in Hindu law against the transfer of coparcenary property.




CHAPTER 4:


CASE STUDY


4.1 Shiromanigurudwara Prabhakar Committee, Amritsar v. SomnathDass


Fact of the case - In this case the court said that a juristic person can be an individual, firm, corporate company, association, society, not including partnership firm. Any individual who can sue or be sued under law would satisfy this requirement.


4.2 Harish Chandra v. Chandra Shekhar AIR 1977 ALL 44


Fact of the case - It was held that a release-deed is a conveyance, hence a transfer of property. If the release deed states that the releaser was the owner and it shows an intention to transfer his title and its operative word sufficiently was the conveyed the title it would amount to transfer.

4.3 Hussia Banu v. Shivanarayan AIR 1968 MP 307


Fact of the case -  it was held that where one of the parties to a settlement gives up a claim to receive a certain sum of money from the other, in consideration of the latter’s given up the right to certain property claimed by him, it would amount to a transfer.


 4.4 Karpagathachi v. Nagarathinathachi


Fact of the case & judgment - , two-widows had divided the husband’s property into two shares and took possession of respective shares. Under the partition deed each widow gave up her life interest. When one of the widows died her daughter took over the possession. The other widow filed a suit against the daughter claiming for the share, which is in possession of the daughter of the other widow. The court held that each widow transfer her right of survivor ship according to section 6(a) of transfer of property act.  Charge cannot be transferred because it is a right, which is a part of property. Compromise cannot be transferred. Easement cannot be transferred because these are the rights or interest arising of land, which is a part of the property but cannot be transferred. Family arrangement may be transferred. A will cannot be transferred because it does not operate by act of parties. Auction sale cannot be transferred because property is in possession of another.




CHAPTER 5:



CONCLUSION & SUGGESTION


It is thus of crucial importance that these concepts are well understood by both lawyers and the parties concerned. This project has attempted to bring out such distinctions as were found relevant for the present discussion, and the more important portions of such legislation have been incorporated for the purpose of a meaningful analysis of the issues at hand. I have tried my best in this research work that the discussion ushered in this paper will go the distance in clarifying the murky areas of these pivotal provisions.

I have tried to incorporate the difference in position in this regard between the said provisions of the Code and the Act, illustrating how though the conceptual similarity is apparent on the face of the matter, there is a great difference in terms of the meaning and content of the two statutory provisions. Also, it has been concluded that though in general, ‘all property may be transferred’, this is subject to the exceptions mentioned in Section 6(a) to (i) of the Act. Thus, one may safely assume that, due regard being given to such exceptions, expressly mentioned in the Act, transfer of all other categories of property is possible and this Act is in furtherance of the selfsame objective of arriving at the desired level of uniformity in terms of regulating property issues throughout the length and breadth of this diverse nation.